Colombia Essays - Americas, Andean Community,

Colombia COLOMBIA GEOGRAPHY: Colombia stretches over approximately 1,140,000 sq. km, roughly equal to the area of Portugal, Spain, and France put together. Colombia occupies the northwestern end of South America, and is the only country there with coasts on both the Pacific (1350 km long), and the Atlantic (over 1600 km.) Three Andean ranges run north and south through the western half of the country (about 45% of the total territory.) The eastern part is a vast lowland which can be generally divided into two regions: a huge open savannah on the north, and the amazon in the south (400,000 sq. km approx.).Colombia is a country of geographical contrasts and extremes. As well as the features mentioned, it has such curiosities as the desert of La Guajira, the peninsula in the most north-eastern tip of the country; the jungle of the pacific coast which holds one of the world's rainfall records; and the Serran?a de la Macarena, an isolated mountain formation about 120 km. long, rising abruptly from the eastern plains to some 2500 meters. Colombia also has several small islands. The major ones are the archipelago of San Andr?s and Providencia in the Caribbean Sea, the Islas del Rosario and San Bernardo along the Caribeian coast, and Gorgona and Malpelo in the Pacific Ocean. HISTORY: Spaniards founded Santa Maria la Antigua del Darien in 1510, the first permanent European settlement on the American mainland. In 1538 the Spaniards established the colony of New Granada, the area's name until 1861. After a 14-year struggle, in which Sim?n Bol?var's troops won the battle of Boyac? in Colombia on Aug. 7, 1819, independence was attained in 1824. Bol?var united Colombia, Venezuela, Panama, and Ecuador in the Republic of Greater Colombia (1810-1830), but lost Venezuela and Ecuador to separatists. Bol?var's Vice President, Francisco de Paula Santander, founded the Liberal Party as the Federalists while Bol?var established the Conservatives as the Centralists. Santander's presidency (1832-1936) re-established order, but later periods of Liberal dominance (1849-1857 and 1861-1880), when the Liberals sought to disestablish the Roman Catholic Church, were marked by insurrection and even civil war. Rafael Nu?ez, in a 15-year-presidency, restored the power of the central government and the church, which led in 1899 to a bloody civil war Foreign Languages

Avian Influenza Essay Example

Avian Influenza Essay Example Avian Influenza Paper Avian Influenza Paper Essay Topic: The Wild Duck Avian Influenza Introduction Bird flu in most cases begins with discomfort of lower respiratory ways and in unusual casesfrom upper respiratory air-ways. Elevated viral titer is isolated from pharynx but not from nose. Initial symptoms of the H5N1 influenza are: high grade fever, mild cold, cough and shortness of breath. Practically all patients develop viral pneumonia complicating to secondary bacterial infection, mild to severe respiratory distress, diarrhea, vomiting and abdominal pain. Conjunctivitis is entity. Sometimes gastrointestinal disorder develops earlier than respiratory symptoms. Avian influenza viruses are shed in respiratory secretions and feces of birds. Infected ducks, for example, shed virus for at least 30 days. Influenza virus from the feces of waterfowl can be recovered from surface water. Avian species develop infection that ranges from asymptomatic to lethal. Avian influenza has caused major outbreaks in poultry farms.   Influenza virus can undergo genetic mutations in hemagglutinin or neuraminidase (antigens on the surface of the virus) that can lead to epidemics. Much less commonly, a completely new hemagglutinin or neuraminidase emerges- with the new genetic material coming from animals. This genetic shift typically leads to pandemics. Early chronology: 1929 Last evidence (serologic) of circulation in humans of a swine-like influenza virus 1930 Isolation of an influenza virus from swine 1933 First isolation of an influenza virus from humans Until 1995, only three of the 15 influenza hemagglutinins that had been identified were known to cause infections in humans. Birds have all 15 identified hemagglutinins and nine neuraminidases. New influenza viruses often emerge from southern China, a region characterized by a large, densely settled human population and abundant pigs and ducks living in close proximity to humans. Until events in Hong Kong in 1997, scientists thought that avian influenza posed no direct threat to humans. In 1997, after causing influenza outbreaks on chicken farms, avian influenza (H5N1) spread to humans (Claas et al. 1998). Eighteen human cases were confirmed, six of them fatal. Infection was concentrated in children and young adults, unlike the pattern in most outbreaks where morbidity and death are most common in older adults. The virus recovered from humans was identical to that found in birds (Subbarao et al. 1998). Epidemiological studies suggested that there had been multiple independent introductions of the influenza virus into the human population from birds, but that very limited person-to-person spread occurred. At the time of the human cases, there were estimated to be 300–600 live bird markets in Hong Kong, where mixing of different avian species (ducks, chickens, pheasants, pigeons, wild birds) was possible. When the Hong Kong live bird markets were studied , 10% or more of birds were found to be shedding H5N1, in multiple avian species (geese, chickens, ducks). The birds (more than one million) were killed, and no additional human cases of H5N1 have been documented. In 1999, human infection with H9N2, another avian influenza strain widespread in Asia, was also documented for the first time in humans, at a time of enhanced surveillance (Peiris et al. 1999). The events in Hong Kong have led to heightened global surveillance for influenza in humans and animals. There was reason to be concerned about the events in Hong Kong, a densely populated city with extensive links to the rest of the world. In 1993, there were an estimated 41.4 million passenger movements (boat, train, car, airplane) and from Hong Kong. The influenza viruses that afflict humans are divided into three types: A, B, and C. Influenza A is responsible for the epidemics and infects not only man but also pigs, horses, seals, and a large variety of birds. Indeed, influenza A has been isolated worldwide from both domestic and wild birds, primarily waterbirds including ducks, geese, terns, and gulls and domesticated birds such as turkeys, chickens, quail, pheasants, geese, and ducks. Studies of wild ducks in Canada from 1975 to 1994 indicated that up to 20 percent of the juveniles were infected, and fecal samples from their lakeshore habitats contained the virus. These birds usually shed the virus from five to seven days (with a maximum of thirty days) after becoming infected even though they show no sign of the disease. Obviously, this virus and its hosts have adapted mutually over many centuries and created a reservoir that ensures perpetuation of the virus. Duck virus has been implicated in outbreaks of influenza in animal s such as seals, whales, pigs, horses, and turkeys. Extensive analysis of the viruss genetic structure, or nucleic acid sequences, supports the hypotheses that mammalian influenza viruses, including those infecting man, may well originate in aquatic birds. (Suarez DL, Spackman E, Senne DA, 2003) Subtypes of influenza A, the various strains of these avian viruses can be classified as either highly pathogenic or as of low pathogenicity, based on their genetic features and the severity of illness they cause in birds. There are currently 27 potential forms of the three subtypes of avian influenza viruses differentiated by variations in the neuraminidase surface antigen. Thus, H5, H7, and H9 avian influenza viruses, so named for their hemagglutinin surface antigen, can each be matched with nine possible neuraminidase surface antigens, N1, N2, N3, etc. Thus, there could be H5N1 through H5N9, H7N1 through H7N9, and H9N1 through H9N9 strains. H9 viruses appear to be of low pathogenicity, while H5 and H7 viruses can be highly pathogenic for birds. However, low pathogenic forms of these viruses seem to be the cause of most outbreaks among poultry causing only mild or imperceptible illness and low mortality rates. Nonetheless, both H5 and H7 can develop high levels of pathogenicity in which case mortality rates in poultry flocks can reach 100%. The natural history of avian influenza viruses is characterized by spread through infected nasal, respiratory and fecal material, and a reservoir state in healthy birds. (Pascal James Imperato, 2005) www.springerlink.com/index/H6427776HH34G857.pdf Pathogenesis The pathogenesis of avian influenza A (H5N1) virus in humans has not been clearly explained. Apoptosis might also play a vital part. Apoptosis has been observed in alveolar epithelial cells, which is the major target cell type for the viral replication. Many apoptotic leukocytes were observed in the lungs of patients who died on day 6 of illness. Apoptosis may play a major role in the pathogenesis of influenza (H5N1) virus in humans by destroying alveolar epithelial cells. This pathogenesis causes pneumonia and destroys leukocytes, leading to leucopenia, which is an outstanding clinical feature of influenza (H5N1) virus in humans. Whether observed apoptotic cells were a directly related to viral replication or outcome of an over activation of the immune system needs further studies. (Uiprasertkul M, 2007) www.cdc.gov/EID/content/13/5/708.htm Infected birds were the major source of the H5N1 influenza virus among humans in Asia. Mainly humans became infected by eating infected birds, by poor hygiene procedures when cooking infected birds, or by close contact with infected poultry. (Reina J, 2002). Certain birds, particularly water birds, act as hosts for influenza viruses by carrying the virus in their intestines and shedding it. Infected birds shed virus in saliva, nasal secretions, and feces. Susceptible birds can become infected with avian influenza virus when they have contact with contaminated nasal, respiratory, or fecal material from infected birds. Fecal-to-oral transmission is the most common mode of spread among birds. Most often, the wild birds that are the hosts for the virus do not get sick, but they can spread influenza to other birds. (CDC, 2006) www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/gen-info/spread.htm At present spread of the H5N1 influenza from human to human by air born route has not been registered, but enduring monitoring for identification mutation and adaptation of H5N1 influenza virus to human is needed. Most studies performed in avian viral strains elucidates that virulence is a polygenic phenomenon. However, hemagglutinin and neuraminidase and the genes codifying these substances (genes 4 and 6) play a vital role in viral pathogenesis. (Gu J, Xie Z, Gao Z, Liu J, Korteweg C, Ye J, Lau LT, Lu J, Gao Z, Zhang B, McNutt MA, Lu M, Anderson VM, Gong E, Yu AC, Lipkin WI, 2007). Avian strains can be classified as virulent or avirulent according to the capability of hemagglutinin to be triggered by endoproteases of the respiratory tract merely or by proteases from other tissues. This ability is based on the ever going mutations that lead to the substitution of the normal amino acids at the point of hemagglutinin hydrolysis by the other basic amino acids that determine the amplifi cation of the spectrum of hydrolysis and activation. Neuraminidase contributes in the acquisition of virulence through its ability to attach to plasminogen and by escalating the concentration of activating proteases. Adaptation to the host, by recognition of the cell receptor, is an additional factor determining the virulence and interspecies spread of avian strains. (Reina J, 2002) Transmission to mammals Influenza A viruses from aquatic birds grow poorly in human cells, and vice versa. However, both avian and human influenza viruses can replicate in pigs. We have known that pigs are susceptible to influenza viruses that infect man ever since the veterinarian J. S. Koen first observed pigs with influenza symptoms closely resembling those of humans. Retrospective tests of human blood indicate that the swine virus isolated by Shope in 1928 was similar to the human virus and likely responsible for the human epidemic. Swine influenza still persists year-round and is the cause of most respiratory diseases in pigs. Interestingly, in 1976, swine influenza virus isolated from military recruits at Fort Dix was indistinguishable from virus isolates obtained from a man and a pig on a farm in Wisconsin. The examiners concluded that animals, especially aquatic birds and pigs, can be reservoirs of influenza virus. When such viruses or their components mix with human influenza virus, dramatic geneti c shifts can follow, creating the potential of a new epidemic for humans. The influenza virus continually evolves by antigenic shift and drift. Early studies in this area by Robert Webster and Graeme Laver established the importance of monitoring influenza strains in order to predict future epidemics. Antigenic shifts are major changes in the structure of the influenza virus that determines its effect on immune responses. Of the viral proteins, the hemagglutinin (H), a major glycoprotein of the virus, plays a central role in infection, because breakdown of hemagglutinin into two smaller units is required for virus infectivity. (Suarez DL, Spackman E, Senne DA, 2003). Shifts in the composition of the hemagglutinin (H) or neuraminidase (N), another glycoprotein, of influenza virus were observed in the 1933, 1957, 1968, and 1977 epidemics: 1933: H1N1 1957: H2N2 (Asian flu) 1968: H3N2 (Hong Kong flu) 1977: reappearance of H1N1, called the Russian flu The reappearance in 1977 of the Russian flu, a virus first isolated in 1933, raises the uneasy possibility that a return of the 1918-19 influenza epidemics with its devastation of human life is possible and perhaps likely. In March of 1997, part of influenza virus nucleic acid was isolated from a formalin-fixed lung tissue sample of a twenty-one-year-old Army private that died during the 1918-19 Spanish influenza pandemic. Since the first influenza viruses were not isolated until the 1930s, characterization of the 1918-19 strain relied on molecular definition of the viruss RNA. Chemical evidence indicated a novel H1N1 sequence of a viral strain that differed from all other subsequently characterized influenza strains and that the 1918 HA human sequence correlated best with swine influenza strains. Once the entire sequence is on hand, a virulent marker for the influenza virus associated with killing over 675,000 Americans from 1918 to 1919 may be uncovered and a vaccine planned that might abort the return of this virus form of influenza.   When such antigenic shifts occur, the appearance of disease is predictable. Therefore, surveillance centers have been established all over the world where isolates of influenza are obtained and studied for alterations, primarily in the hemagglutinin. According to the evidence from these centers, isolates identified in late spring are excellent indicators of potential epidemics in the following winter. Both avian and human influenza viruses can replicate in pigs, and genetic reassortants or combinations between them can be demonstrated experimentally. A likely scenario for such an antigenic shift in nature occurs when the prevailing human strain of influenza A virus and an avian influenza virus concurrently infect a pig, which serves as a mixing vessel. Reassortants containing genes derived mainly from the human virus but with a hemagglutinin and polymerase gene from the avian source are able to infect humans and initiate a new pandemic. In rural Southeast Asia, the most densely populated area of the world; hundreds of millions of people live and work in close contact with domesticated pigs and ducks. This is the likely reason for influenza pandemics in China. Epidemics other than the 1918-19 catastrophes have generally killed 50,000 or fewer individuals, although within a year over one million people had been infected with these new strains. Conclusion Three major hypotheses have been put forth to explain antigenic shifts. First, as described above, a new virus can come from a reassortant in which an avian influenza virus gene substitutes for one of the human influenza virus genes. The genome of human influenza group A contains eight RNA segments, and current wisdom is that the circulating influenza hemagglutinin in humans has been replaced with an avian hemagglutinin. A second explanation for antigenic shifts that yield new epidemic viruses is that strains from other mammals or birds become infectious for humans. Some believe that this is the cause of the Spanish influenza virus epidemic in 1918-19, with the transmission of swine influenza virus to humans. A third possibility is that newly emerging viruses have actually remained hidden and unchanged somewhere but suddenly come forth to cause an epidemic, as the Russian H1N1 virus once did. H1N1 first was isolated in 1933, then disappeared when replaced by the Asian H2N2 in 1957. H owever, twenty years later the virus reappeared in a strain isolated in northern China and subsequently spread to the rest of the world. This virus was identical in all its genes to one that caused human influenza epidemics in the 1950s. (Gu J, Xie Z, Gao Z, Liu J, Korteweg C, Ye J, Lau LT, Lu J, Gao Z, Zhang B, McNutt MA, Lu M, Anderson VM, Gong E, Yu AC, Lipkin WI, 2007) Where the virus was for twenty years is not known. Could it have been inactivated in a frozen state, preserved in an animal reservoir, or obscured in some other way? If this is so, will the Spanish influenza virus also return, and what will be the consequences for the human population? In addition to antigenic shift, which signifies major changes in existing viruses, antigenic drift permits slight alterations in viral structure. These follow pinpoint changes (mutations) in amino acids in various antigen domains that relate to immune pressure, leading to selection. For example, the hemagglutinin molecule gradually changes while undergoing antigenic drift. Such mutations allow the virus to escape from attack by antibodies generated during a previous bout of infection. Because these antibodies would ordinarily protect the host by removing the virus, this escape permits the related infection to remain in the population. With these difficulties of antigenic shift and, drift and animal reservoirs, it is not surprising that making an influenza vaccine as effective as those for smallpox, pohovirus, yellow fever, or measles is difficult to achieve. Another complication is that immunity to influenza virus is incomplete; that is, even in the presence of an immune response, influenza can still occur. Nevertheless, the challenge of developing vaccines based on surveillance studies has been met. A chemically treated, formalin-inactivated virus has been formulated in a vaccine that is 30 to 70 percent effective in increasing resistance to influenza virus. The vaccine decreases the frequency of influenza attacks or, at least, the severity of disease in most recipients, although protection is not absolute. In addition, the secondary bacterial infections that may accompany influenza are today treatable with potent antibacterial drugs previously unavailable. Nonetheless, of the plagues that visit humans, influenza is among those that require constant surveillance, because we can be certain that some form of influenza will continue to return. References: CDC. Spread of Avian Influenza Viruses among Birds; Journal of Environmental Health, Vol. 68, 2006.www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/gen-info/spread.htm Claas, E. C. J., A. D. M. E. Osterhaus, R. van Beek, J. C. De Jong, G. F. Rimmelzwaan, D. A. Senne, S. Krauss, K. F. Shortridge, and R. G. Webster. 1998. Human influenza A H5N1 virus related to a highly pathogenic avian influenza virus. Lancet 351:472–477. Gu J, Xie Z, Gao Z, Liu J, Korteweg C, Ye J, Lau LT, Lu J, Gao Z, Zhang B, McNutt MA, Lu M, Anderson VM, Gong E, Yu AC, Lipkin WI. H5N1 infection of the respiratory tract and beyond: a molecular pathology study; Lancet Sep 29; 370(9593):1106-8, 2007 Pascal James Imperato. The Growing Challenge of Avian Influenza; Journal of Community Health, Vol. 30, 2005. www.springerlink.com/index/H6427776HH34G857.pdf Peiris, M., K. Y. Yuen, C. W. Leung, K. H. Chan, P. L. S. Ip, R. W. M. Lai, W. K. Orr, and K. F. Shortridge. 1999. Human infection with influenza H9N2. Lancet 354:916–917. Reina J. Factors affecting the virulence and pathogenicity of avian and human viral strains (influenza virus type A)] Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin; 20(7):346-53 (ISSN: 0213-005X) Hospital Universitario Son Dureta, Palma de Mallorca, Espaà ±a, 2002 direct.bl.uk/research/48/44/RN119578176.html Suarez DL, Spackman E, Senne DA. Update on molecular epidemiology of H1, H5, and H7 influenza virus infections in poultry in North America; Avian Dis. 2003; 47(3 Suppl): 888-97 ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez Subbarao, K., A. Klimov, J. Katz, H. Renery, W. Lim, H. Hall, M. Perdue, D. Swayne, C. Bender, J. Huang, M. Hemphill, T. Rowe, M. Shaw, X. Xu, K. Fukuda, and N. Cox. 1998. Characterization of an avian influenza A (H5N1) virus isolated from a child with a fatal respiratory illness. Science 279:393–396. Uiprasertkul M. Apoptosis and Pathogenesis of Avian Influenza A (H5N1) Virus in Humans Emerg Infect Dis; 13(5):708-12 (ISSN: 1080-6040) Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand.2007 www.cdc.gov/EID/content/13/5/708.htm

EMPLOYMENT NON-DISCRIMINATION ACT Research Paper

EMPLOYMENT NON-DISCRIMINATION ACT - Research Paper Example In 2009, after the Democrats came into power with a majority, House Representative Barney Frank, has reintroduced the ENDA that includes only the transgender class. With the recent changes in the Congress, the ENDA bill has gained new momentum, especially with the backing of President Barack Obama (The White House, Civil Rights- Strengthen Anti-Discrimination Laws, 2010), there are every prospects for the bill being passed within the present President’s term and becoming a law. Discussion What is this policy? The Employment Non Discrimination Act (ENDA) is a federal bill that aims to stop all forms of bias or discrimination based on the sexual orientation of the employees, by the employer. The LGBT community in US has been demanding workplace protection right from the 1970s; however, it is only recently that the bill that accords protection to the LGBT sections has been presented in the Senate. Though the ENDA bill was presented in the Congress in 2009, it is still pending and is under scrutiny by the House Education and Labour Committee. What does it purport to accomplish and why has it been proposed? This bill â€Å"promotes the goal of embracing diversity in the workplace.   Proponents also argue that sexual orientation is protected under the U.S. Constitution's guarantees of equal protection and due process.   Without a federal statute, victims of discrimination are subject to a patchwork of state law protections that provide uneven and often insufficient protection, hence the need for a national standard in the form of ENDA† (Aden, The  Employment Non-Discrimination Act, 2010). The advocates of this bill opine that homosexuality is a form of an individual’s personal identity, and not a â€Å"choice,† so the working people have a right to be judged according to their work performance, and not by their personal identities (American Psychological Association, 2011).   The APA in its various researches has reported that ther e exists significant bias against homosexuals within the U.S. workforce (ibid), thus making it necessary that a uniform law is made that would cover the entire country. The political actors supporting this bill are the Democrats, and the current US President in the White House, Barack Obama, is a staunch supporter of the cause and the bill. The opponents of this bill (the Conservatives, and religious groups), and various critics contend that ‘antidiscrimination laws’ like the ENDA tend to promote  a lack of tolerance  that are based on religious faith. Thus, it has been proposed that if such acts do not have any associated meaningful exceptions, specially made keeping in mind the different religious organizations and employers (with organisations that are faith based), that may have objections towards homosexuality from a religious point of view, then the passing act would have a negative effect. â€Å"Without strong exemptions, religious organizations will be requ ired, as a condition of seeking workers to carry out their faith-based missions, to affirm conduct that is in diametric opposition to the moral principles of their faith† (ibid).   The opponents of this act contend that this bill is different from other ‘

Chronicling America Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Chronicling America - Essay Example However, much that has been written is about the Indians and their social-economic life. For instance, the author has written that the work done by the Indians in Minnesota brings them about $50,000 -$60,000 annually (Hauke, 1915). Also, the reader learns that these Indians are 95% industrious. This is well understood when the example of the full-blooded Chippewa is given that gets $100 monthly by being a forester. This is an indication that the Indians at Minnesota were hard working. The aspect of the Red Lake Minnesota Indians as living in deplorable conditions is also well captured by the author. Notably, the Red Lake News was a newspaper that published articles that lived in the vicinity of the Red Lake and not the Indians only. Notably, despite the fact that they live in such conditions, the author has clearly indicated the cooperation among the members of this community whereby they ensured that they lived comfortably. Much of the Indians activities both at home and at school w ere exhibited at fair thus enlightening the people that attended on the lives of the Indians. Also, the Indians activities while at school were also on display such as their progress in games and their social cohesion. In my opinion, the editor is trying to communicate on the importance of social cohesion in the society and the economic advantages that come with that togetherness. This is seen when the editor gives the names of the people who taught the Indians as well as the managers of the schools (Hauke, 1915).

Clinical Depression Overview Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Clinical Depression Overview - Research Proposal Example When depression strikes, a person will not only feel down, it may affect his ability to function normally in society, and in some extreme cases, it provokes the person to commit suicide. Being the most common mental disorder in the United States, depression affects over 17 million Americans each year ("Understanding Depression"). With these, depression is obviously a serious condition that should on no account be ignored. In identifying depression, certain factors such as gender, age, and culture should be taken into account. The manifestations of depression in different people are likely to vary in accordance with the aforementioned factors (Smith, R. Segal, and J. Segal). For instance, an elderly man would most probably exhibit different signs and symptoms of depression from a teenage girl. However, there are common signs and symptoms that we can watch out for. These signs and symptoms can be categorized into those involving the person's mood, his thinking, his behavior and physical manifestations ("Depression - Types, Causes and Symptoms"). Symptoms that involve the person's mood include feelings of sadness, hopelessness, helplessness, numbness, emptiness, anxiousness, and guilt. People who are depressed find it hard to enjoy and feel good about things that they used to do normally ("Depression - Types, Causes and Symptoms"). A depresse...People suffering from depression also find it difficult to think clearly and they have poor concentration and memory ("Depression - Types, Causes and Symptoms"). In some cases, as earlier mentioned, depressed people have suicidal thoughts and some actually attempt to kill themselves.

Political Objectives of the Falklands War

Political Objectives of the Falklands War War as a Strategic Tool of Policy: The Falklands War Did War prove to be a Successful Means of Achieving Political Objectives? Examine from both UK and Argentinean perspectives. In an essay of this brevity it would be impossible, and indeed unnecessary, to discuss fully the history of the Falkland Islands; we will therefore begin by discussing the immediate origins of the conflict before going on to discuss the strategic, economic and finally political objectives of both participants before reaching a conclusion as to weather the war proved a successful means of achieving each sides political objectives. Development of a Crisis. Argentina had been smarting for some years after the 19th century British occupation of the Falkland Islands, but the matter began to come to a head when they raised the question of sovereignty at the United Nations in 1964. At that time the British position was that sovereignty was non-negotiable, but that they were open to discussions regarding contact between the Islands and Argentina, as well as issues regarding the welfare of the Islanders themselves. An the beginning of 1966, the British Foreign Secretary held discussions regarding the Falklands with officials in Buenos Ares and later a meeting was held in London with the same issue on the agenda. The British strategy during these discussions was to defuse and potential difficulties and to essentially to maintain the then current position. The Argentinean delegations, however, wanted nothing short of a return of the Malvinas to Argentine sovereignty; from the very beginnings of the growing crisis the two sides had differing and indeed mutually exclusive, political and strategic objectives. After the discussions the British publicly stated that they had no strategic, political or economic interests in the Falkland Islands, all of which were untrue as we will see. The growing tension was not only felt among the higher echelons of Government, but also among the public, particularly in Argentina and on the Islands themselves. In September 1964 a light aircraft landed at Port Stanley and planted an Argentine flag, the pilot then took off and returned to Argentine without opposition. Exactly two years later a hijacked Argentine passenger airliner was forced to land on the Island and despite suspicions to the contrary the argentine government denied any involvement. These incidents helped to raise the existence of a British colony on its very doorstep to the Argentine populace, as did the British response of stationing a platoon of marines on the east of the Islands. In November 1966 the British proposed a thirty year freeze on discussions, after which time the islanders would be allowed to decide their own future, this was rejected by the Argentineans as it did not serve their immediate political objectives of a return of the islands. In March of the following year the British subjected that, under certain conditions, they would be prepared to cede sovereignty of the islands to Argentina. There were conditions attached, however, most notably that the wished of the islanders would be paramount. The islanders themselves lobbied parliament and the matter was dropped. The condition that the wished of the islanders be sacrosanct was to become the key underlying theme of British foreign policy with regard to ownership of the islands. The islanders themselves wished to remain a British protectorate and thus the British Government were forced to discount all proposals to the contrary. To the Argentineans, sovereignty was the key issue; thus their respec tive political objectives set the two nations on a collision course. With the political objectives seemingly firmly entrenched and mutually exclusive, it seems a little strange that the two sides continued to negotiate throughout the 1970’s. In the middle of June 1970, talks were concluded that resulted in improved communications between the Argentineans and the Falklanders. The Islanders were offered travel documents that allowed them to move freely in Argentine, as well as a generous range of financial incentives. The Argentines believed that they had made significant concessions and that the British had not reciprocated at all. In 1974 the British proposed a condominium, essentially joint control of the islands. The islanders themselves balked at the idea however. If the Argentine concessions of 1970 had been intended to sway public opinion among the islanders in their favour, it had evidently failed. By the mid 70’s, the Argentine Government had evidently grown tired of attempts to seek a purely political resolution and their position hardened. Argentina began to increase the strength of its rhetoric and openly implied the possibility of invasion. This was followed at the beginning of 76 by an Argentine destroyer firing upon and attempting to board a British vessel. March 1976 say a military coup in Argentina; the military had no doubt been increasing in power as the hardening of the Argentine line on the Falklands of the previous few years indicates. Soon after the coup in Argentina, a patrol helicopter from the HMS Endurance discovered an Argentine military presence on Southern Thule, part of the Falkland Islands, a clear violation of British territory. The British Government failed to react in any more serious way than making a formal protest. This Argentine base was allowed to exist unchallenged for five years, right up to the outbreak of the war in 1982. If there was any one factor in the pre war years that convinced the powers that be in Argentine of the lack of political and/or military will to maintain control of the Falkland Islands it was the failure to react appropriately the they unchallenged presence on southern Thule. 1979-80 saw, along with the election of a new Conservative Government in Great Britain, the revival of the lease back idea first proposed by the British in 1975; the idea being that formal sovereignty would transfer to Argentina whilst the British would maintain a military base and continue to administer the islands. The proposal was vehemently opposed by the islanders and their supporters in Britain. Despite this opposition, the Foreign Office pursued the policy whilst Lord Carrington advised the new Prime Minister Thatcher of the likely political consequences at home. The policy was eventually rejected. Following the breakdown of talks, a summit was held in New York, but, as reported in the Economist, the British diplomats were politically restrained and had little or nothing to offer regarding concessions over sovereignty. By the beginning of 1982, the Argentine military junta was thoroughly dissatisfied with the level and pace of progress and, although publicly stating that their aim was a diplomatic solution to the problem, the unstated agenda was sovereignty by the end of the year. The invasion was, perhaps inevitable. Strategic objectives. The strategic importance of the Falkland Islands is very easy to assess, a simple glance at a map is enough. The islands were one of the very few bases for the British in the Southern Atlantic; from the islands the British could maintain a vigil upon activity throughout most of the southern part of South America. For this reason too, it was of vital (probably even greater) importance to Britain’s key ally, the United States. The importance of the islands in friendly hands can be suggested by the unofficial assistance provided to the British task force by the American navy. Thus Britain’s policy objectives were inseparably bound within strategic considerations. The Argentineans perspective was precisely the reverse; they could no longer tolerate a base so close their coastline. An analogy may be seen in the position of the United States over Cuba during the Cold War. The desire to recover the Malvinas Islands was not new, but the military coup did provide new impetus to the policy, along with putting in power people who were not afraid to explore, and finally execute, the military option in order to achieve the objective. Economic objectives. The economic objectives of both sides as a cause of the conflict have been largely ignored by historians. In 1966 the British unofficially told the Argentines that they had no economic interest in the islands at all and that they were largely self sufficient. Although this may have been the case at the time, this position soon changed. By 1975 the British Government established a working committee under, Lord Shackleton, to investigate the economic potential of the islands. The report concluded the islands had enormous fishing potential, as well as potentially significant oil and natural gas reserves. The oil crisis of 1973 and a recent (1973-75) geological survey in the region had suggested the significant potential for the development of local oil and gas fields. Thus, economically the British Government could not allow the islands to pass out of the British sphere of influence. The Argentines were also aware of the economic potential of the islands as the geological survey was not secret, this led to suspicion in Buenos Ares that the â€Å"British were after the islands oil† The importance of the discovery of oil in the region can not be overstated as a reason for increasing tensions in the region. It would have been politically unsound to say the least for the British to cede control of significant new reserves to a foreign power so soon after a global oil crisis. To the Argentineans, the potential exploitation of a major new oil field just a few miles off their coastline, by a foreign power, was unacceptable. Political objectives. Margaret Thatcher had become Prime Minister of Great Britain in 1979; after wresting the leadership from Edward Heath after the electoral defeats of 1974. The early years of the new Thatcher Government were not easy; inflation was a major issue, as was the entrenched power of trade unions. Oil prices were high following a crisis with Iran, further fuelling inflationary pressures. High interest rates and an increase in VAT did not help the domestic economic position, nor did it help British industry, leading to record unemployment and recession. By 1980, both inflation and unemployment were double what they had been at the election the previous year. The obvious domestic political result was a massive slide in popularity of the new Conservative Government and a significant personal decline in the popularity of the Prime Minister. By 1981 unemployment reached 2.5 million and there were riots in Brixton and Toxteth; the following year unemployment stood at 3 million, where it remained for five years. With this domestic backdrop it is hardly surprising that the British put so little emphasis upon the developing crisis in the Southern Atlantic., and the lack of appropriate response to the landings on Southern Thule. The Argentine invasion allowed the Thatcher government to move the focus away from the failing domestic agenda to matters of foreign policy. She surrounded herself in calls of patriotism which the country responded to. The British task force was assembled with remarkable speed and despatched to the Falklands. The recovery of the islands was hailed as a personal triumph for Mrs. Thatcher, and the general feeling of deep political failure with which the crisis began, had been transformed into a sense of resounding and overwhelming success by its conclusion. The Falklands crisis was a major success for the Thatcher Government; confidence was restored, popularity was again high, despite the domestic situation not having improved at all. For the new military junta in Argentina, there was only one possible course of action. Recovery of the Malvinas Islands was a priority. Military regimes generally do not pride themselves on economic success, but rely on strength of arms; an invasion of the islands became inevitable therefore. The unopposed landings on Southern Thule had had a positive effect in Argentina, reinforcing the belief that the islands would return (and soon) to Argentine control. The invasion came soon after and acted to stabilise the political situation in Argentina, the new regime was acting to secure the islands and thus the nation’s borders from foreign imperialist powers. Initially therefore, the invasion was a huge success, although it quickly turned to disaster as the Argentines underestimated the desire of the British to maintain control of the Falklands. Ultimately the invasion was as negative a force for the Argentine junta as it was positive for the Thatcher Government. Conclusion. Despite the initial successes of the operation for the Argentines, the strategy of militarily occupying the islands proved an utter failure. Progress that was being made on diplomatic means of recovery of the islands, even if that had been some kind of shares control, was lost completely. The Thatcher Government began the crisis in deep difficulties on the domestic front, but a victory in warfare, the defending of the realm as it were, proved a resounding success for the Government and restored its failing popularity, despite the dire domestic situation remaining unchanged. The war was, therefore, a significant success for the British. With hindsight we can also say that it helped to lead to eighteen years of Conservative Government, a feat that would surely have been impossible without the Falklands campaign, or with any kind of a failure to recover the islands. Bibliography. P. Beck, The Falkland Islands as an International Problem (London 1988) L. Freedman, Britain and the Falklands War (Oxford 1988) L. S. Gustafson, The Sovereignty Dispute over the Falkland (Malvinas) Islands (Oxford 1988) M. Hastings S. Jenkins, The Battle for the Falklands (London 1983) D. Kinney, Anglo-Argentinean Diplomacy and the Falklands Crisis, in A. Coll, and Anthony C. Arend, (eds.), The Falklands War: Lessons for Strategy, Diplomacy and International Law (London 1985) G. A. Makin, The Military in Argentine Politics 1880-1982, Millenium: Journal of International Studies, 1983a, 12.1 G. A. Makin, Argentine Approaches to the Falklands/Malvinas: was the Resort to Violence Foreseeable, International Affairs, 1983b, 59.3 M. Middlebrook, Task Force: The Falkland Islands War, 1982, (London 1987) D. Sanders, H. Ward, D. Marsh, Government Popularity and the Falklands War: A Reassessment, British Journal of Political Science, 1987, 17.3 Lord Shackleton, Economic Survey of the Falkland Islands, vol’s 1-2 (London 1976) J. H. Wylie, The Influence of British Arms: an Analysis of British Intervention since 1956, (London 1984) D. S. Zakheim, The Southern Atlantic Conflict: Strategic, Military, and Technological Lessons, in A. Coll, and Anthony C. Arend, (eds.), The Falklands War: Lessons for Strategy, Diplomacy and International Law (London 1985) The Economist, January 24th 1976 The Economist, June 19th 1982 The Times, January 19th 1976

Ministers Black Veil Essays: The Minister’s Black Veil and its Author :: Ministers Black Veil Essays

â€Å"The Minister’s Black Veil† and its Author Evaluated By Contemporaries  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚   Initially, of course, Nathaniel Hawthorne’s short stories went unranked among those of other American and British writers. But his reputation, along with the popularity of his works, grew gradually even among contemporary critics, until he was recognized as a â€Å"man of genius.†    Edgar Allen Poe, in a review of Hawthorne’s work, said in Godey's Lady's Book, November, 1847, no. 35, pp. 252-6:    It was never the fashion (until lately) to speak of him in any summary of our best authors. . . . The "peculiarity" or sameness, or monotone of Hawthorne, would, in its mere character of "peculiarity," and without reference to what is the peculiarity, suffice to deprive him of all chance of popular appreciation. But at his failure to be appreciated, we can, of course, no longer wonder, when we find him monotonous at decidedly the worst of all possible points--at that point which, having the least concern with Nature, is the farthest removed from the popular intellect, from the popular sentiment and from the popular taste. I allude to the strain of allegory which completely overwhelms the greater number of his subjects.    So literary critic Edgar Allan Poe thinks that Hawthorne’s heavy reliance on allegory is the cause of his lack of popularity during the 1830’s and 40’s. In 1848 James Russell Lowell wrote a piece of poetry entitled â€Å"Hawthorne† for the periodical A Fable for Critics:      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   "There is Hawthorne, with genius so shrinking and rare   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   That you hardly at first see the strength that is there;   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A frame so robust, with a nature so sweet,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   So earnest, so graceful, so lithe and so fleet,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Is worth a descent from Olympus to meet;   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   'Tis as if a rough oak that for ages had stood,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   With his gnarled bony branches like ribs of the wood,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Should bloom, after cycles of struggle and scathe,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   With a single anemone trembly and rathe;   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   His strength is so tender, his wildness so meek. . . .    The author considers that now, â€Å"after cycles of struggle and scathe,† Hawthorne is finally emerging into recognition for his work. In 1850 Herman Melville wrote â€Å"Hawthorne and His Mosses† for The Literary World, August 17 and 24 editions, in which he humbly acknowledges the genius of Nathaniel Hawthorne:

Characters- No Sugar Essay

Through the characters names all the aboriginal names are given Christian names while the white characters almost without exception are given titles and surnames. This humanizes the aboriginal characters and dehumanizes the white characters while highlighting their position of power. White characters are demonized by their actions as well as their names, they refer to going back to the Tasmanian solution (pg44), showing that they have no regard for the aboriginal’s lives. JP: Racist- he refers to the aboriginal people as natives, and sees them as people who don’t belong.. We Repelled by his cruel treatment towards the Aborigines. Impatient, self-centred- (interrupting) Look, I’m not interested in what you had for dinner. If you’ve got an explanation, just tell me what it is. Frank- The only white character, Frank brown is the only one who has a real relationship with the aboriginals and he is the only one of the white characters who’s afforded a white name. He’s accused of supplying liquor to jimmy. Millie- Persists and does what she believes is right. ‘Stereotypical women’ and caring mother to her children. Supportive mother, takes care of her child when she’s sick- My girls in hospital, we need blankets. Jimmy- Aboriginal, lack of education- â€Å"sorry sir I was on the shit bucket†¦toilet, got guts ache. Impatient and persistent- will not give up on seeing Mr Neville. Says what he thinks –‘You know one thing about Fremantle gaol even some of them screws are polite- not like this place. Native protector  couldn’t protect my dog from fleas. Neville- Racist Believes aboriginals do not and should not have the same power and allowances as white people. Ignorant and Disrespectful: Munday let me give you some advice sugar catches more flies then vinegar. Although reats white people with respect. E.g. Miss Dunn Gran and Jimmy: These are the two characters evolve in the passage through their actions and behaviour . Gran becomes a more noble character and appears benevolent in relation to her family. The Aboriginal family and particularly gran are shown to have extremely strong bonds and care about each other deeply, this is even more noticeable when compared to the indifference of the white chracters This contrasted to jimmy’s behaviour of false sincerity and respect for the white individuals reaffirms gran’s intelligence of character. She delveopes and becomes more of a realistic character who’s clearly has her best family’s interest at heart.

Ska Music essays

Ska Music essays Music is one medium through which a generation can express itself. For a generation of suppressed, restless, working-class youths living in early 1960's Jamaica, this voice was a genre of music known as ska. Since its original appearance, ska has resurfaced twice. Ska music has been presented to three generations of fans in three separate "waves." Its humble beginnings lead to one of the most influential styles of music present in the world. By 1962, Jamaica was no longer under British rule. Jamaican culture and music began to reflect the new found optimism in its independence. Since the early 1940's, Jamaica had adopted and adapted many forms of American musical styles. The predominantly black inhabitants of Jamaica took a liking to rhythm and blues music , and with imported American records, "enterprising businessmen attempted to string up small sound systems consisting of radio, turntable, and independent speaker boxes". These portable sound systems provided entertainment at dance halls. Owners of different sound systems competed against each other at the halls. The sound systems were run by two individuals, the deejay and the selector, dressed in "spangled waistcoats, black leather Dracula capes, imitation ermine robes, Lone Ranger masks, and rhinestone-studded crowns" . The deejay job was to introduce each record and to enhance the rhythm of the music! by chanting along with the record. Selectors chose records and used the controls to increase or decrease bass, treble, or volume. Musicians picked up on the elements of the rhythm and blues and combined it with traditional Jamaican mento music. The result was the first wave of ska. Musically, ska is "a shuffle-rhythm close to mento but even closer to the backbeat of the r&b, with the accent on the second and fourth beats, often moving in a 12-bar blues-frame. The afterbeat, strummed by a rhythm guitar or played on the piano . . . came to be charac...

102LON_Week_Presentation_-_Formative_Feedback_Form Essays

102LON_Week_3_Presentation_-_Formative_Feedback_Form Essays NOTE TO ALL STUDENTS: Please use the information above to review & improve your future group work. 102LON Week 3 Presentation Peer Assessed Formative Feedback Student Name & Id 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. DATE: During the presentation the group provided evidence of (please tick): Excellent Good Average Poor Not evidenced Overview of how group members view their emotions Evidence of understanding what emotional intelligence is Evidence of personal development and reflection on emotional intelligence & the importance of it to organisations Evidence of independent research/work carried out towards the presentation Evidence of personal learning and personal development planning for the presentation (confidence during delivery) Students overall presentation/communication skills/ability Clarity/coherence of the presentation Overall Comments/Areas for Development: NOTE TO ALL STUDENTS: Please use the information above to review & improve your future group work. Please use this separate page for additional comments.

Abraham Lincoln Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Abraham Lincoln - Essay Example . . ."1 In the following paper I would like to discuss Abraham Lincolns policies during the civil war. The discussion will be structured in the way that will shape Presidents motives in actual conducting the war and mostly pointed into defining whether the reasons were to abolish slavery or receive economic benefit. Faced with heavy Union losses and the destructive nature of the war, Abraham Lincoln, an antislavery proponent, gradually adopted slave emancipation as the most prudent means of ending the conflict between North and South, bringing an end to the war, and thus paving the way to a reunited nation. Lincolns role in the destruction of the institution of slavery during the Civil War and afterward is widely accpeted to be the reason of Civil War as the institution of slavery, so instrumental in dividing the nation, provided Linocoln with an effective tool for ending the conflict. Slowly, at a pace too deliberate for most blacks and many Republicans, Linocoln gradually approached emancipation through the Confiscation Acts, compensation plans, and the Emancipation Proclamation (Abbott, 1968). None of these plans provided for immediate or full emancipation. Even the much-touted Emancipation Proclamation excluded slaves in all the border states and in Confederate areas controlled by the Union as of January 1, 1863, offering freedom only to those slaves living in Confederate strongholds--the very areas in which Linocoln could not enforce his proclamation. At best, the Emancipation Proclamation opened the door to freedom, but it left millions still enslaved. Even when war seemed inescapable, Lincoln remained the premier politician and chief adherent to the Constitution regarding the slavery issue; but observers thousands of miles away lacked his keen understanding of these domestic political and legal realities and began to ponder the

Managing for the Future Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Managing for the Future - Essay Example Some of the major objectives of the company are to provide growth and opportunities to employees, fulfilling the shareholder’s expectations and creating shareholder’s value. (PepsiCo, 2013c). The vision of the company is to translate the mission and objectives through the development of social, environmental and economical development programmes (PepsiCo, 2013c). The values and philosophy of Pepsi signifies its responsibility towards societal and community needs (PepsiCo, 2013e). The main objective of the company is to attain the financial and business goals with a positive impact on the society (PepsiCo, 2013o).The company has expanded into several segments and regions by acquiring several business units and companies like Tropicana, Pepsi Bottling Group and Pepsi Americas in the year 2007 and 2009 respectively (PepsiCo, 2013f). 1 (a) Environmental Issues Environmental issues have been a cause of huge concern for the society, government and the companies. The major cau se of the environmental degradation has been the impact of the business activities and process. The alterations in the biodiversity have interacted in the most complex ways with the environment. The environmental issues in developed and developing countries have propelled the demand for restructuring the environmental reform. Environmental issues have become a growing concern for the government of varied nations and have compelled them to create knowledge of environmental imperatives, rules and regulations. The government of varied nations especially of the developing nations are trying to manage the situational crisis by developing measures of protection for the environment. Environment protection measures by the government have helped in creating awareness among the societal members and led to reduction of economic stress. The fundamental problems of environmental degradation could be solved with the aid of the multinational corporations. The aid of multinational corporations is r equired for the reduction in the carbon emissions and toxic elements (Chukwuma, 2000).The government of varied nations and the world health organizations have created several strict measures for the multinational corporations to abide by. The various environmental issues developed by Pepsi during the tenure 2007 to 2013 would be as follows: Year Environmental issues & Sustainability Technology 2007 The management had developed a programme which was known as human sustainability. The goal of this programme was to develop food products which were healthy and nourishing for customers. The company had taken measures of reducing the water and energy consumption per unit by 20 percent (PepsiCo, 2013m). The goals of the programme were also to decrease fuel consumption by 25 percent. The company had reused the water from processing methods to provide communities access to clean water. The company was included in the Dow and Jones Sustainability Index in North America (PepsiCo, 2013h). The c ompany was successful in developing successful technological transformation initiatives. It was also successful in implementing techniques in PCA, Tropicana and Quaker oats for enhancing the product development process. A ground work was laid to convert the financial process, contracts, and other projects into SAP technology (PepsiCo, 2013h). 2008 The company had t