The Population of Los Angeles, California

The Los Angeles population can be looked at in a variety of ways—it can refer to the population of the City of Los Angeles, the County of Los Angeles, or to the greater Los Angeles metropolitan area, each of which is considered to be L.A. Los Angeles County, for instance, contains  88 cities including the City of Los Angeles, Long Beach, Santa Clarita, Glendale, and Lancaster, as well as several unincorporated communities whose combined population makes it the largest county in the United States in terms of occupancy. The demographics of these populations is also varied and diverse, depending on where in Los Angeles and LA County you look. In total, the population of Los Angeles is about 50 percent white, nine percent African American, 13 percent Asian, about one percent Native American or Pacific Islander, 22 percent from other races, and about 5 percent from two or more races. Population by City, County, and Metro Area The City of Los Angeles is a very large one, it is the nations second-largest city (following New York City). The January  2016 population estimate according to the California Department of Finance for the population of the City of Los Angeles was 4,041,707. The County of Los Angeles is the largest county in the United States based on population, and according to the California Department of Finance, the LA County population as of January 2017 was 10,241,278. LA County is home to 88 cities, and the population of those cities varies from 122 people in Vernon to nearly four million in the City of Los Angeles. The largest cities in LA County are: Los Angeles: 4,041,707Long Beach: 480,173Santa Clarita: 216,350Glendale: 201,748Lancaster: 157,820 The United States Census Bureau estimates the population of the Los Angeles-Long Beach-Riverside, California Combined Statistical Area as of 2011 as 18,081,569. The LA metro population is the countrys second largest, following New York City (New York-Newark-Bridgeport, NY-NJ-CT-PA). This Combined Statistical Area includes the Metropolitan Statistical Areas of Los Angeles-Long Beach-Santa Ana, Riverside-San Bernardino-Ontario, and Oxnard-Thousand Oaks-Ventura. Demographics and Population Growth Although most of the population of the Los Angeles metropolitan area is centralized in the City of Los Angeles, its diverse population is spread over 4,850 square miles (or 33,954 square miles for the wider statistical area), with several of the cities serving as gathering spots for specific cultures. For instance, of the 1,400,000 Asians living in Los Angeles,  a majority live in Monterey Park, Walnut, Cerritos, Rosemead, San Gabriel, Rowland Heights, and Arcadia while  the majority of the  844,048 African Americans that live in LA live in View Park-Windsor Hills, Westmont, Inglewood, and Compton. In 2016, Californias population grew but just under one percent, adding a total of over 335,000 residents to the state. While much of this growth was spread across the state, nine counties in northern and eastern California saw a decrease in population, which is a trend thats existed for the better part of the last 10 years. The largest of these growth changes, though, happened in Los Angeles County, which added 42,000 people to its population, increasing it for the first time to over four million residents.

Describe Atkinson And Shiffrin s Multi Store Model Of Memory

Describe Atkinson and Shiffrin’s multi-store model of memory, with reference to the experimental studies which do and do not support it. Memory is defined as being the mental capacity to encode, store and retrieve information. Atkinson and Shiffrin developed the Multi-store memory model in an attempt to explain this phenomenon (figure 1), (Atkinson and Shiffrin,1968). Throughout this essay, the MSM model shall be discussed, and how the concept is far more complex than initially understood. The original simplistic MSM model suggests that information flows in a well-regulated pathway between stores, and interaction between the stores allows retrieval and storage of information. The model consists of three permanent units, sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. Processes which connect the systems include attention, rehearsal and retrieval (Figure 1). Rehearsal has two main roles according to Atkinson and Shiffrin. This includes acting as a buffer between SM and LTM by maintaining incoming information within the STM and transferring information from STM to LTM. Although the multi-store memory model can be considered to be outdated and over simplistic it has paved the way for psychologists to identify how memory works. Figure 1: The MSM model as designed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, indicating that memory is made up of three separate unit’s sensory store, short term and long term store. Which are connected via rehearsal and retrieval The first stage of MSMShow MoreRelatedDiscuss the Interaction Between Cognition and Physiology in Terms of Behavior942 Words   |  4 Pages†¢ Introduction: cognition, physiology, relation †¢ Amnesia: retrograde, anterograde †¢ Memory: multi-store, division, *amnesic patients, ways of distinguishing types of memory (KC, spiers maguire and burgess, vargha and khadem) †¢ HM †¢ Clive Wearing †¢ Conclusion: cognition, physiology Cognition, as defined by Neisser, is all the processes by which the brain transforms, reduces, elaborates, stores, retrieves, and uses information. Physiology refers to the structures of the human body andRead MoreMemory Test Outcomes: Differences? Naive and Non-Naive Participants Using Levels of Processing Test1171 Words   |  5 PagesMemory Test Outcomes: Differences? Naà ¯ve and Non-Naive participants using Levels of Processing Test Abstract 90words Introductions 450 Many researchers have tried to unravel the mystery of memory in the brain. Early popular theorist Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) proposed that memories are kept in the brain in â€Å"stores† or rather locations where the information is held. They suggest that new information detected from the environment enters to the sensory memory. If attention is paidRead MoreHuman Memory: a Passive Mechanism or Dynamic System? Essay2709 Words   |  11 PagesMemory is a capacity that humans rely upon to relate to different events, experiences, conditions, and people. It is a vitally important process and system whereby the brain receives information from (external or internal) stimuli, stores it (encoding), and makes it available on a future occasion (retrieval). It provides continuity to people’s experiences across different periods of time. Research is increasingly concluding that the brain works as an integrated whole rather than a series of discreteRead MoreThe Five Approaches to Psychology Essay examples3712 Words   |  15 Pages1 Name five approaches to psychology There are five approaches to psychology, Cognitive Psychology Cognition is the term used to describe a range of mental activities associated with thinking. Cognitive processes include reasoning, problem solving, paying attention and remembering. Social Psychology Social Psychology studies the way we interpret events that are going on around us and how we interact with one another. Physiological Psychology Physiological Psychology is the study ofRead MoreWorking Memory5992 Words   |  24 Pagesï » ¿Working Memory ââ€"  Working memory enables us to keep things in mind for short periods (215 seconds) as we think, e.g. while reading, making a list etc. ââ€"  It s related to but different to short-term-memory (STM) and long-term-memory (LTM). ââ€"  Chapter focuses on Baddley s (1986) model of phonological working memory, vocabulary acquisition and computational modelling of working-memory. ââ€"  The concept of span means how many items from a briefly presented set can be remembered, e.g. word span

Key Pieces of Term Paper Proposal Sample

Key Pieces of Term Paper Proposal Sample Term Paper Proposal Sample Ideas Term Paper is among the most significant writing tasks. Before getting very far, you will require a term paper outline. For writing an investigation proposal, it's sensible to pin reduced just term paper definition what it's that you just be ready to do. The period paper format is additionally a universal standard for most academic papers and the rules and regulations need to be taken into account. The increasing number of essay writing services is totally overwhelming. If you believe you aren't, you ought to get another person to do the appraisal for you. So, a couple days without visible progress, beaten and frustrated, you choose to look for inspiration on the internet by browsing for term paper samples. The subject really should be just one distributed to a far bigger wide selection of people today or maybe the internet community thus allowing for whomever to secure an adequate quantity of explora tion supplies connected to the subject. Furthermore our compound understanding of term paper formats lets us deliver nothing less then the very best term papers. Without focus, papers usually do not flow well and are more difficult to read and understand. Allow the reader know precisely what they are going to learn in the paper. It's quite beneficial to read a good example term paper, or two, before you commence writing your own, especially, if they're related or have similar topics. Your title page is the initial impression of your work so make certain it will capture your reader's interest. If you would like to understand what a Term Paper format is or are interested in an original, high standard Term Paper format on the internet, you may discover an answer here. Term Paper format is imperative to follow because the format of the expression paper defines and directs the stream of the paper and the way it ought to be written. The Downside Risk of Term Paper Proposal Sample That being said a proposal isn't only a little exploration paper. The strategic management procedure is important for both domestic and global firms but while the practice of creating a strategic plan is much more complex though the procedure is the exact same for both. Although strategic planning is associated with the initial two stages, the previous two are likewise a significant part planning. By following the measures given here, you must have a fantastic essay by the minute you're done. Getting done with the research procedure means having lots of information about the table. The very first procedure is strategic analysis. The second phase of the strategic management procedure is strategy formulation. Every examples term paper, at our website, is supposed to underline the high degree of professionalism which our writers have and to demonstrate their proficiency. Our writers also undergo a string of other training that may truly convince us they are fantastic for the job. Your work will probably be executed with extreme wellness care and perfection. Should you need expert writing help, don't hesitate to visit EssayPro.com. Why Almost Everything You've Learned About Term Paper Proposal Sample Is Wrong You ought to be detached and objective in your writing. Coursework is vital job for those scholars. If you fret about the characteristic of your essay as well as you're worrying about whether you can locate a paper writer you are able to trust, you have arrived at the right spot. Thereby, a couple recommendations for publishing decent essay really ought to be used even while writing essays in order to make sure they are just powerful. It's really simple to seek the services of the internet writing services since there are a few writers are also offered. The parable of stuffing as much material inside an essay or parts of paper really ought to be busted. What to Expect From Term Paper Proposal Sample? Deadline has become the most important thing on which you have to look closely at. Sample term papers ought to be strictly weighed side by side with the matter of plagiarism. The very first purpose of every introduction is going to be to herald to the readers that something serious which must be handled properly in the body of the expression paper. Few are worried about the simple fact that using examples term paper can be called cheating. You can do a little inquiry too. Additionally, there are cases when a student can't even produce a topic because of his term paper. Key Pieces of Term Paper Proposal Sample Otherwise, you can elect for samples above in addition to check our tips. A term paper is crucial when it has to do with your final mark. Whenever you have researched on a particular topic, you're expected to use a particular citation style. Don't neglect to enter the quantities of pages along with the words that you want in the undertaking. What to Expect From Term Paper Proposal Sample? A graduate education essay might just be ready for admissions, any use and other material that is wanted. If you should obtain a college term paper, bu t don't understand where to look you've come to the proper spot! Try to remember that many of students will need to gain from your term paper. A prudent student doesn't have to cover a sample paper.

Business Research Report for Communication - myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theBusiness Research Report for Business Communication. Answer: Reflection report This research is significant for me to understand the advantages and disadvantages of using the social network in business. From the introduction chapter, it can be evaluated that social networking platform may offer different services in terms of business communication like communicating with consumers about their needs and desires as well as effective to deliver the goods and services to the bulk of people (Rennie, and Morrison, 2013).This tool is also beneficial to get feedback about services for further improvement. Consequently, this chapter has not only improved my understanding but also enhanced my skills regarding research field. Along with this, it is analyzed that the project scope is wider which entails the development of Amazon business by using the social networking platforms like Linkedin, Facebook, and Twitter (Leonardi, et. al., 2013). As a result, this project is beneficial for me to implement this within an organization as it can enhance my personal as well as professional career. Through literature review, I have learned that the key advantage of using social networking is associated with a cost-effective approach which is required for business development. In this way, it is observed that a large number of sharing through online networking practices not only free of cost but also easy to access as well as beneficial to create the profile of the company and post the information about the products and services (Bryman, 2015).As a result, I can use the social networking practices within an organization as I can grow in the marketing field in short-term as well as long-term. It is also analyzed that Amazon has gained its revenue by using the social networking strategies which enables it to build a distinguished image as compared to other e-commercial sites in the retail sector (Denscombe, 2014). This experience was effective for me to gain the revenue of company as compared to other key competitors. As a result, it could be significant to be a good marketing manager in future. I have also learned that company should facilitate the customers to access their websites by using the different platform of social media. In this way, it is observed that Amazon provides facilities to simply hashtag facilities to their customers for their products on Twitter (Chu and Du, 2013). This learning was beneficial for me to promote the companys products and services through different marketing channels. During this research, I have also boosted my understanding regarding advantages of social networking sites. In this way, it can be evaluated that different sites like video, Ryze, and Linkedin are used to segment the particular market. This tool is used for formal business communication and also enabled the company to interact with the customers (Luo and Zhong, 2015). This experience has beneficial for me to improve my research and marketing skills. From this research, I have also extended my understanding regarding the limitation of social networking. In this way, I have learned that social networking sites can be quite risky for the business in case of data misuse. It is analyzed that if social media platform does not handle appropriately, then it may create a negative brand image in the customers mind. It may lead to decline revenue of the products and services (Okazaki and Taylor, 2013). As a result, I am able to create favorable brand image among customers mind. This will also improve my personal as well as professional career. Through this research, I have gained my experience regarding web-based social networking. In this way, it can be evaluated that web-based social networking is used in the dynamic changing environment and also beneficial to increase the return on investment. Furthermore, brand loyalty can be improved by taking the actual responses from the web-based social network (Asadi, et. al., 2014). This learning provides me the opportunity to implement the web-based social networking strategy within an organization. From the research methodology, I have learned that both primary and secondary data collection method is used to formulate the feasible result. In this way, the primary question is beneficial to assess the essential data and getting the reliable and valid outcome. But, at the same time, it is observed that secondary questionnaire is less effective as compared to primary based question (Bernard and Gravlee, 2014). This learning is beneficial for me to create the research questionnaire in an effective manner. Along with this, I have learned that research hypothesis is a set of assumption which is created for obtaining the effective result. At the same time, it is analyzed that both qualitative and quantitative approach has been used in research in a different manner. I have gained my knowledge regarding the process of qualitative research. This process includes different steps like general research question, selection of subject matter, gathering data, analysis and interpretation, and conclusions and findings (Certo, 2015). It enables me to use these process in further research in an appropriate manner. During this research, I have also gained my knowledge about simple random sampling method . This method is used to find, and pool the information from those respondents who are entailed in research with the different intention (Bernard and Gravlee, 2014). This method is beneficial for me to choose the participants from a large number of population. From the study of quantitative research, I have gained my experience regarding the different process of quantitative research like gathering of data, data analyzing, interpreting findings and preparation. At the same time, I have increased my knowledge regarding research instrument. In this way, I have learned that there is a various method to measure the rating instrument like rating schedule, time and motion log and performance checklist. This research has also gained my understanding regarding research limitation. In this way, I have learned that inadequate resources, inability to control the business purpose, and lack of time with the statistical tool. In the last, I have increased my knowledge regarding time schedule which is beneficial for me to perform the activities in a specified time period. References Asadi, A., Wang, Q., and Mancuso, V. (2014) A survey on device-to-device communication in cellular networks,IEEE Communications Surveys and Tutorials,16(4), pp. 1801-1819. Bernard, H. R., and Gravlee, C. C. (Eds.). (2014)Handbook of methods in cultural anthropology. UK: Rowman and Littlefield. Bryman, A. (2015)Social research methods. UK: Oxford university press. Certo, S. (2015)Supervision: Concepts and skill-building. UK: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Chu, S. K. W., and Du, H. S. (2013) Social networking tools for academic libraries,Journal of librarianship and information science,45(1), pp. 64-75. Denscombe, M. (2014)The good research guide: for small-scale social research projects. UK: McGraw-Hill Education. Leonardi, P. M., Huysman, M., and Steinfield, C. (2013) Enterprise social media: Definition, history, and prospects for the study of social technologies in organizations,Journal of Computer?Mediated Communication,19(1), pp. 1-19. Luo, Q., and Zhong, D. (2015) Using social network analysis to explain communication characteristics of travel-related electronic word-of-mouth on social networking sites,Tourism Management,46, pp. 274-282. Okazaki, S., and Taylor, C. R. (2013) Social media and international advertising: theoretical challenges and future directions,International marketing review,30(1), pp. 56-71. Rennie, F., and Morrison, T. (2013)E-learning and social networking handbook: Resources for higher education. UK: Routledge.

Colombia Essays - Americas, Andean Community,

Colombia COLOMBIA GEOGRAPHY: Colombia stretches over approximately 1,140,000 sq. km, roughly equal to the area of Portugal, Spain, and France put together. Colombia occupies the northwestern end of South America, and is the only country there with coasts on both the Pacific (1350 km long), and the Atlantic (over 1600 km.) Three Andean ranges run north and south through the western half of the country (about 45% of the total territory.) The eastern part is a vast lowland which can be generally divided into two regions: a huge open savannah on the north, and the amazon in the south (400,000 sq. km approx.).Colombia is a country of geographical contrasts and extremes. As well as the features mentioned, it has such curiosities as the desert of La Guajira, the peninsula in the most north-eastern tip of the country; the jungle of the pacific coast which holds one of the world's rainfall records; and the Serran?a de la Macarena, an isolated mountain formation about 120 km. long, rising abruptly from the eastern plains to some 2500 meters. Colombia also has several small islands. The major ones are the archipelago of San Andr?s and Providencia in the Caribbean Sea, the Islas del Rosario and San Bernardo along the Caribeian coast, and Gorgona and Malpelo in the Pacific Ocean. HISTORY: Spaniards founded Santa Maria la Antigua del Darien in 1510, the first permanent European settlement on the American mainland. In 1538 the Spaniards established the colony of New Granada, the area's name until 1861. After a 14-year struggle, in which Sim?n Bol?var's troops won the battle of Boyac? in Colombia on Aug. 7, 1819, independence was attained in 1824. Bol?var united Colombia, Venezuela, Panama, and Ecuador in the Republic of Greater Colombia (1810-1830), but lost Venezuela and Ecuador to separatists. Bol?var's Vice President, Francisco de Paula Santander, founded the Liberal Party as the Federalists while Bol?var established the Conservatives as the Centralists. Santander's presidency (1832-1936) re-established order, but later periods of Liberal dominance (1849-1857 and 1861-1880), when the Liberals sought to disestablish the Roman Catholic Church, were marked by insurrection and even civil war. Rafael Nu?ez, in a 15-year-presidency, restored the power of the central government and the church, which led in 1899 to a bloody civil war Foreign Languages

Avian Influenza Essay Example

Avian Influenza Essay Example Avian Influenza Paper Avian Influenza Paper Essay Topic: The Wild Duck Avian Influenza Introduction Bird flu in most cases begins with discomfort of lower respiratory ways and in unusual casesfrom upper respiratory air-ways. Elevated viral titer is isolated from pharynx but not from nose. Initial symptoms of the H5N1 influenza are: high grade fever, mild cold, cough and shortness of breath. Practically all patients develop viral pneumonia complicating to secondary bacterial infection, mild to severe respiratory distress, diarrhea, vomiting and abdominal pain. Conjunctivitis is entity. Sometimes gastrointestinal disorder develops earlier than respiratory symptoms. Avian influenza viruses are shed in respiratory secretions and feces of birds. Infected ducks, for example, shed virus for at least 30 days. Influenza virus from the feces of waterfowl can be recovered from surface water. Avian species develop infection that ranges from asymptomatic to lethal. Avian influenza has caused major outbreaks in poultry farms.   Influenza virus can undergo genetic mutations in hemagglutinin or neuraminidase (antigens on the surface of the virus) that can lead to epidemics. Much less commonly, a completely new hemagglutinin or neuraminidase emerges- with the new genetic material coming from animals. This genetic shift typically leads to pandemics. Early chronology: 1929 Last evidence (serologic) of circulation in humans of a swine-like influenza virus 1930 Isolation of an influenza virus from swine 1933 First isolation of an influenza virus from humans Until 1995, only three of the 15 influenza hemagglutinins that had been identified were known to cause infections in humans. Birds have all 15 identified hemagglutinins and nine neuraminidases. New influenza viruses often emerge from southern China, a region characterized by a large, densely settled human population and abundant pigs and ducks living in close proximity to humans. Until events in Hong Kong in 1997, scientists thought that avian influenza posed no direct threat to humans. In 1997, after causing influenza outbreaks on chicken farms, avian influenza (H5N1) spread to humans (Claas et al. 1998). Eighteen human cases were confirmed, six of them fatal. Infection was concentrated in children and young adults, unlike the pattern in most outbreaks where morbidity and death are most common in older adults. The virus recovered from humans was identical to that found in birds (Subbarao et al. 1998). Epidemiological studies suggested that there had been multiple independent introductions of the influenza virus into the human population from birds, but that very limited person-to-person spread occurred. At the time of the human cases, there were estimated to be 300–600 live bird markets in Hong Kong, where mixing of different avian species (ducks, chickens, pheasants, pigeons, wild birds) was possible. When the Hong Kong live bird markets were studied , 10% or more of birds were found to be shedding H5N1, in multiple avian species (geese, chickens, ducks). The birds (more than one million) were killed, and no additional human cases of H5N1 have been documented. In 1999, human infection with H9N2, another avian influenza strain widespread in Asia, was also documented for the first time in humans, at a time of enhanced surveillance (Peiris et al. 1999). The events in Hong Kong have led to heightened global surveillance for influenza in humans and animals. There was reason to be concerned about the events in Hong Kong, a densely populated city with extensive links to the rest of the world. In 1993, there were an estimated 41.4 million passenger movements (boat, train, car, airplane) and from Hong Kong. The influenza viruses that afflict humans are divided into three types: A, B, and C. Influenza A is responsible for the epidemics and infects not only man but also pigs, horses, seals, and a large variety of birds. Indeed, influenza A has been isolated worldwide from both domestic and wild birds, primarily waterbirds including ducks, geese, terns, and gulls and domesticated birds such as turkeys, chickens, quail, pheasants, geese, and ducks. Studies of wild ducks in Canada from 1975 to 1994 indicated that up to 20 percent of the juveniles were infected, and fecal samples from their lakeshore habitats contained the virus. These birds usually shed the virus from five to seven days (with a maximum of thirty days) after becoming infected even though they show no sign of the disease. Obviously, this virus and its hosts have adapted mutually over many centuries and created a reservoir that ensures perpetuation of the virus. Duck virus has been implicated in outbreaks of influenza in animal s such as seals, whales, pigs, horses, and turkeys. Extensive analysis of the viruss genetic structure, or nucleic acid sequences, supports the hypotheses that mammalian influenza viruses, including those infecting man, may well originate in aquatic birds. (Suarez DL, Spackman E, Senne DA, 2003) Subtypes of influenza A, the various strains of these avian viruses can be classified as either highly pathogenic or as of low pathogenicity, based on their genetic features and the severity of illness they cause in birds. There are currently 27 potential forms of the three subtypes of avian influenza viruses differentiated by variations in the neuraminidase surface antigen. Thus, H5, H7, and H9 avian influenza viruses, so named for their hemagglutinin surface antigen, can each be matched with nine possible neuraminidase surface antigens, N1, N2, N3, etc. Thus, there could be H5N1 through H5N9, H7N1 through H7N9, and H9N1 through H9N9 strains. H9 viruses appear to be of low pathogenicity, while H5 and H7 viruses can be highly pathogenic for birds. However, low pathogenic forms of these viruses seem to be the cause of most outbreaks among poultry causing only mild or imperceptible illness and low mortality rates. Nonetheless, both H5 and H7 can develop high levels of pathogenicity in which case mortality rates in poultry flocks can reach 100%. The natural history of avian influenza viruses is characterized by spread through infected nasal, respiratory and fecal material, and a reservoir state in healthy birds. (Pascal James Imperato, 2005) www.springerlink.com/index/H6427776HH34G857.pdf Pathogenesis The pathogenesis of avian influenza A (H5N1) virus in humans has not been clearly explained. Apoptosis might also play a vital part. Apoptosis has been observed in alveolar epithelial cells, which is the major target cell type for the viral replication. Many apoptotic leukocytes were observed in the lungs of patients who died on day 6 of illness. Apoptosis may play a major role in the pathogenesis of influenza (H5N1) virus in humans by destroying alveolar epithelial cells. This pathogenesis causes pneumonia and destroys leukocytes, leading to leucopenia, which is an outstanding clinical feature of influenza (H5N1) virus in humans. Whether observed apoptotic cells were a directly related to viral replication or outcome of an over activation of the immune system needs further studies. (Uiprasertkul M, 2007) www.cdc.gov/EID/content/13/5/708.htm Infected birds were the major source of the H5N1 influenza virus among humans in Asia. Mainly humans became infected by eating infected birds, by poor hygiene procedures when cooking infected birds, or by close contact with infected poultry. (Reina J, 2002). Certain birds, particularly water birds, act as hosts for influenza viruses by carrying the virus in their intestines and shedding it. Infected birds shed virus in saliva, nasal secretions, and feces. Susceptible birds can become infected with avian influenza virus when they have contact with contaminated nasal, respiratory, or fecal material from infected birds. Fecal-to-oral transmission is the most common mode of spread among birds. Most often, the wild birds that are the hosts for the virus do not get sick, but they can spread influenza to other birds. (CDC, 2006) www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/gen-info/spread.htm At present spread of the H5N1 influenza from human to human by air born route has not been registered, but enduring monitoring for identification mutation and adaptation of H5N1 influenza virus to human is needed. Most studies performed in avian viral strains elucidates that virulence is a polygenic phenomenon. However, hemagglutinin and neuraminidase and the genes codifying these substances (genes 4 and 6) play a vital role in viral pathogenesis. (Gu J, Xie Z, Gao Z, Liu J, Korteweg C, Ye J, Lau LT, Lu J, Gao Z, Zhang B, McNutt MA, Lu M, Anderson VM, Gong E, Yu AC, Lipkin WI, 2007). Avian strains can be classified as virulent or avirulent according to the capability of hemagglutinin to be triggered by endoproteases of the respiratory tract merely or by proteases from other tissues. This ability is based on the ever going mutations that lead to the substitution of the normal amino acids at the point of hemagglutinin hydrolysis by the other basic amino acids that determine the amplifi cation of the spectrum of hydrolysis and activation. Neuraminidase contributes in the acquisition of virulence through its ability to attach to plasminogen and by escalating the concentration of activating proteases. Adaptation to the host, by recognition of the cell receptor, is an additional factor determining the virulence and interspecies spread of avian strains. (Reina J, 2002) Transmission to mammals Influenza A viruses from aquatic birds grow poorly in human cells, and vice versa. However, both avian and human influenza viruses can replicate in pigs. We have known that pigs are susceptible to influenza viruses that infect man ever since the veterinarian J. S. Koen first observed pigs with influenza symptoms closely resembling those of humans. Retrospective tests of human blood indicate that the swine virus isolated by Shope in 1928 was similar to the human virus and likely responsible for the human epidemic. Swine influenza still persists year-round and is the cause of most respiratory diseases in pigs. Interestingly, in 1976, swine influenza virus isolated from military recruits at Fort Dix was indistinguishable from virus isolates obtained from a man and a pig on a farm in Wisconsin. The examiners concluded that animals, especially aquatic birds and pigs, can be reservoirs of influenza virus. When such viruses or their components mix with human influenza virus, dramatic geneti c shifts can follow, creating the potential of a new epidemic for humans. The influenza virus continually evolves by antigenic shift and drift. Early studies in this area by Robert Webster and Graeme Laver established the importance of monitoring influenza strains in order to predict future epidemics. Antigenic shifts are major changes in the structure of the influenza virus that determines its effect on immune responses. Of the viral proteins, the hemagglutinin (H), a major glycoprotein of the virus, plays a central role in infection, because breakdown of hemagglutinin into two smaller units is required for virus infectivity. (Suarez DL, Spackman E, Senne DA, 2003). Shifts in the composition of the hemagglutinin (H) or neuraminidase (N), another glycoprotein, of influenza virus were observed in the 1933, 1957, 1968, and 1977 epidemics: 1933: H1N1 1957: H2N2 (Asian flu) 1968: H3N2 (Hong Kong flu) 1977: reappearance of H1N1, called the Russian flu The reappearance in 1977 of the Russian flu, a virus first isolated in 1933, raises the uneasy possibility that a return of the 1918-19 influenza epidemics with its devastation of human life is possible and perhaps likely. In March of 1997, part of influenza virus nucleic acid was isolated from a formalin-fixed lung tissue sample of a twenty-one-year-old Army private that died during the 1918-19 Spanish influenza pandemic. Since the first influenza viruses were not isolated until the 1930s, characterization of the 1918-19 strain relied on molecular definition of the viruss RNA. Chemical evidence indicated a novel H1N1 sequence of a viral strain that differed from all other subsequently characterized influenza strains and that the 1918 HA human sequence correlated best with swine influenza strains. Once the entire sequence is on hand, a virulent marker for the influenza virus associated with killing over 675,000 Americans from 1918 to 1919 may be uncovered and a vaccine planned that might abort the return of this virus form of influenza.   When such antigenic shifts occur, the appearance of disease is predictable. Therefore, surveillance centers have been established all over the world where isolates of influenza are obtained and studied for alterations, primarily in the hemagglutinin. According to the evidence from these centers, isolates identified in late spring are excellent indicators of potential epidemics in the following winter. Both avian and human influenza viruses can replicate in pigs, and genetic reassortants or combinations between them can be demonstrated experimentally. A likely scenario for such an antigenic shift in nature occurs when the prevailing human strain of influenza A virus and an avian influenza virus concurrently infect a pig, which serves as a mixing vessel. Reassortants containing genes derived mainly from the human virus but with a hemagglutinin and polymerase gene from the avian source are able to infect humans and initiate a new pandemic. In rural Southeast Asia, the most densely populated area of the world; hundreds of millions of people live and work in close contact with domesticated pigs and ducks. This is the likely reason for influenza pandemics in China. Epidemics other than the 1918-19 catastrophes have generally killed 50,000 or fewer individuals, although within a year over one million people had been infected with these new strains. Conclusion Three major hypotheses have been put forth to explain antigenic shifts. First, as described above, a new virus can come from a reassortant in which an avian influenza virus gene substitutes for one of the human influenza virus genes. The genome of human influenza group A contains eight RNA segments, and current wisdom is that the circulating influenza hemagglutinin in humans has been replaced with an avian hemagglutinin. A second explanation for antigenic shifts that yield new epidemic viruses is that strains from other mammals or birds become infectious for humans. Some believe that this is the cause of the Spanish influenza virus epidemic in 1918-19, with the transmission of swine influenza virus to humans. A third possibility is that newly emerging viruses have actually remained hidden and unchanged somewhere but suddenly come forth to cause an epidemic, as the Russian H1N1 virus once did. H1N1 first was isolated in 1933, then disappeared when replaced by the Asian H2N2 in 1957. H owever, twenty years later the virus reappeared in a strain isolated in northern China and subsequently spread to the rest of the world. This virus was identical in all its genes to one that caused human influenza epidemics in the 1950s. (Gu J, Xie Z, Gao Z, Liu J, Korteweg C, Ye J, Lau LT, Lu J, Gao Z, Zhang B, McNutt MA, Lu M, Anderson VM, Gong E, Yu AC, Lipkin WI, 2007) Where the virus was for twenty years is not known. Could it have been inactivated in a frozen state, preserved in an animal reservoir, or obscured in some other way? If this is so, will the Spanish influenza virus also return, and what will be the consequences for the human population? In addition to antigenic shift, which signifies major changes in existing viruses, antigenic drift permits slight alterations in viral structure. These follow pinpoint changes (mutations) in amino acids in various antigen domains that relate to immune pressure, leading to selection. For example, the hemagglutinin molecule gradually changes while undergoing antigenic drift. Such mutations allow the virus to escape from attack by antibodies generated during a previous bout of infection. Because these antibodies would ordinarily protect the host by removing the virus, this escape permits the related infection to remain in the population. With these difficulties of antigenic shift and, drift and animal reservoirs, it is not surprising that making an influenza vaccine as effective as those for smallpox, pohovirus, yellow fever, or measles is difficult to achieve. Another complication is that immunity to influenza virus is incomplete; that is, even in the presence of an immune response, influenza can still occur. Nevertheless, the challenge of developing vaccines based on surveillance studies has been met. A chemically treated, formalin-inactivated virus has been formulated in a vaccine that is 30 to 70 percent effective in increasing resistance to influenza virus. The vaccine decreases the frequency of influenza attacks or, at least, the severity of disease in most recipients, although protection is not absolute. In addition, the secondary bacterial infections that may accompany influenza are today treatable with potent antibacterial drugs previously unavailable. Nonetheless, of the plagues that visit humans, influenza is among those that require constant surveillance, because we can be certain that some form of influenza will continue to return. References: CDC. Spread of Avian Influenza Viruses among Birds; Journal of Environmental Health, Vol. 68, 2006.www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/gen-info/spread.htm Claas, E. C. J., A. D. M. E. Osterhaus, R. van Beek, J. C. De Jong, G. F. Rimmelzwaan, D. A. Senne, S. Krauss, K. F. Shortridge, and R. G. Webster. 1998. Human influenza A H5N1 virus related to a highly pathogenic avian influenza virus. Lancet 351:472–477. Gu J, Xie Z, Gao Z, Liu J, Korteweg C, Ye J, Lau LT, Lu J, Gao Z, Zhang B, McNutt MA, Lu M, Anderson VM, Gong E, Yu AC, Lipkin WI. H5N1 infection of the respiratory tract and beyond: a molecular pathology study; Lancet Sep 29; 370(9593):1106-8, 2007 Pascal James Imperato. The Growing Challenge of Avian Influenza; Journal of Community Health, Vol. 30, 2005. www.springerlink.com/index/H6427776HH34G857.pdf Peiris, M., K. Y. Yuen, C. W. Leung, K. H. Chan, P. L. S. Ip, R. W. M. Lai, W. K. Orr, and K. F. Shortridge. 1999. Human infection with influenza H9N2. Lancet 354:916–917. Reina J. Factors affecting the virulence and pathogenicity of avian and human viral strains (influenza virus type A)] Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin; 20(7):346-53 (ISSN: 0213-005X) Hospital Universitario Son Dureta, Palma de Mallorca, Espaà ±a, 2002 direct.bl.uk/research/48/44/RN119578176.html Suarez DL, Spackman E, Senne DA. Update on molecular epidemiology of H1, H5, and H7 influenza virus infections in poultry in North America; Avian Dis. 2003; 47(3 Suppl): 888-97 ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez Subbarao, K., A. Klimov, J. Katz, H. Renery, W. Lim, H. Hall, M. Perdue, D. Swayne, C. Bender, J. Huang, M. Hemphill, T. Rowe, M. Shaw, X. Xu, K. Fukuda, and N. Cox. 1998. Characterization of an avian influenza A (H5N1) virus isolated from a child with a fatal respiratory illness. Science 279:393–396. Uiprasertkul M. Apoptosis and Pathogenesis of Avian Influenza A (H5N1) Virus in Humans Emerg Infect Dis; 13(5):708-12 (ISSN: 1080-6040) Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand.2007 www.cdc.gov/EID/content/13/5/708.htm

EMPLOYMENT NON-DISCRIMINATION ACT Research Paper

EMPLOYMENT NON-DISCRIMINATION ACT - Research Paper Example In 2009, after the Democrats came into power with a majority, House Representative Barney Frank, has reintroduced the ENDA that includes only the transgender class. With the recent changes in the Congress, the ENDA bill has gained new momentum, especially with the backing of President Barack Obama (The White House, Civil Rights- Strengthen Anti-Discrimination Laws, 2010), there are every prospects for the bill being passed within the present President’s term and becoming a law. Discussion What is this policy? The Employment Non Discrimination Act (ENDA) is a federal bill that aims to stop all forms of bias or discrimination based on the sexual orientation of the employees, by the employer. The LGBT community in US has been demanding workplace protection right from the 1970s; however, it is only recently that the bill that accords protection to the LGBT sections has been presented in the Senate. Though the ENDA bill was presented in the Congress in 2009, it is still pending and is under scrutiny by the House Education and Labour Committee. What does it purport to accomplish and why has it been proposed? This bill â€Å"promotes the goal of embracing diversity in the workplace.   Proponents also argue that sexual orientation is protected under the U.S. Constitution's guarantees of equal protection and due process.   Without a federal statute, victims of discrimination are subject to a patchwork of state law protections that provide uneven and often insufficient protection, hence the need for a national standard in the form of ENDA† (Aden, The  Employment Non-Discrimination Act, 2010). The advocates of this bill opine that homosexuality is a form of an individual’s personal identity, and not a â€Å"choice,† so the working people have a right to be judged according to their work performance, and not by their personal identities (American Psychological Association, 2011).   The APA in its various researches has reported that ther e exists significant bias against homosexuals within the U.S. workforce (ibid), thus making it necessary that a uniform law is made that would cover the entire country. The political actors supporting this bill are the Democrats, and the current US President in the White House, Barack Obama, is a staunch supporter of the cause and the bill. The opponents of this bill (the Conservatives, and religious groups), and various critics contend that ‘antidiscrimination laws’ like the ENDA tend to promote  a lack of tolerance  that are based on religious faith. Thus, it has been proposed that if such acts do not have any associated meaningful exceptions, specially made keeping in mind the different religious organizations and employers (with organisations that are faith based), that may have objections towards homosexuality from a religious point of view, then the passing act would have a negative effect. â€Å"Without strong exemptions, religious organizations will be requ ired, as a condition of seeking workers to carry out their faith-based missions, to affirm conduct that is in diametric opposition to the moral principles of their faith† (ibid).   The opponents of this act contend that this bill is different from other ‘